'Taking Lives' Essay

In what ways does ‘Taking Lives’ conform to or subvert what you consider to be forms and conventions of the thriller genre?

Like most thrillers, ‘Taking Lives’ begins with a scene that sets a vague overview of the content for the rest of the film, which helps the audience establish a brief understanding of characters, setting etc. During the opening of ‘Taking Lives’, a main character is brought into focus, alongside a supporting role. As the audience you get the feeling that the two characters introduced would be the main story for the film, in some way. The scene that follows is aimed to shock the audience, and it indeed delivers, as you begin to understand the characters. Yet the director [D.J. Caruso] brings it back to the intended thriller genre, with an accident suddenly occurring after a line of speech, designed to make the viewers speculate about what is meant. The predictability of the event is quite subtle, as the viewer is almost drawn into the storyline, forgetting what the genre is, even thought you know in the back of your mind something is going to happen, it does so in an unlikely way. Most thrillers conform to a cliché of suspended shock, be it from an event build up or character act, ‘Taking Lives’ builds anticipation until the audience is sat on the edge of their seat, yet instead of shock, the thrill subsides and re-appears when it is least expected.

'Taking Lives’ could be considered as a classic thriller, in the sense that there is a protagonist, who appears to have a pretty mundane background, yet as the story unravels in a series of unnerving events, it becomes apparent the lead character is far from the ordinary. The director builds up a storyline with many factors to build up the tension of the plot including the typical dark rooms without a working light, leading a FBI agent into a room alone with only the company of a single torchlight. One of the main conventions of the thriller genre involved the use of psychology, be it mentally unstable or otherwise. This forms the main focal point for a classic thriller, as the mind patterns of the main character almost entice the viewers, giving them the ability to allow their own minds to wonder where or what they are going to do next.

The film lives up to the predictability of the thriller genre by the means of the typical instrumental music, it never fails to create a dramatic suspense, drawing the audience even deeper into the plot. However, what the director does using this well know technique is to play the music when one character is alone, the music is played, creating the tension for the audience, yet when the instrumentals build up to a climax nothing happens, creating a false illusion of where the plot is going.

When relating ‘Taking Lives’ to the typical convention of the thriller, there are aspects which subvert the genre, setting it aside from the rest. Violence is frequently associated with thriller films, be it for audience shock, or storytelling; the opening credits of this particular film involve a young man being thrown in front of a moving vehicle, and suffering a blow to the face with a rock, by the mysterious main character. Although this sets the scene and creates that instant and vital impact for audience capture, there is barely any violence until the pinnacle of the film is reached. If watched through again, you can see Caruso has primarily used sound effects to shock the audience, and that what is interpreted is purely down to audio illusion and human imagination.

Conforming to the shock value of a typical thriller, the suspense in ‘Taking Lives’ is done so through sequences of characters being alone in darkened rooms, for example the scene where the main female character is in the suspects bedroom. The mise- en- scene in this particular scene is characteristic for a psychotic individual; a bleak setting with dirty, shambolic surroundings. The shadows cast upon the walls by the female give the illusion she is not alone and with the suspense heightened by the instrumental music, the audience is lead to believe an event is about to take place. Caruso subverts the film from the cliché of the thriller genre when the woman lies on the bed of the murderer, adding an element of relaxation. The fact the female is un phased by the situation she is in, the scene plays with human emotion by questioning if she is too, mentally unbalanced on some level. The sequence provokes thought amongst the audience, until shock value is restored when hands suddenly emerge from the bed, where the detective is lying. The constant ‘on-edge’ aspect to the film conforms to the typical features of a thriller, yet Caruso pushes this boundary by capturing the audience with mental confusion.

In conclusion, ‘Taking Lives’ conforms to the typical elements of a thriller, yet the plot and use of audience expectancy subvert the norm, and with judgement enticing the audience, the film can be praised in a whole new context.

'Taking Lives'

Here is the trailer for 2004 thriller 'Taking Lives'. Directed by D.J. Caruso, starring Angelina Jolie & Ethan Hawke, the story plays on the emotions of romance and psychotic disturbance, which sets the film away from the typical thrillers within the genre.

The Thriller genre

Definition of a thriller....

Thriller is a broad genre of literature, film and television that includes numerous and often overlapping sub-genres. Thrillers are characterized by fast pacing, frequent action, and resourceful heroes who must thwart the plans of more-powerful and better-equipped villains. Writer Vladimir Nabokov, in his lectures at Cornell University, said that "In an Anglo-Saxon thriller, the villain is generally punished, and the strong silent man generally wins the weak babbling girl, but there is no governmental law in Western countries to ban a story that does not comply with a fond tradition, so that we always hope that the wicked but romantic fellow will escape scot-free and the good but dull chap will be finally snubbed by the moody heroine.
Literary devices such as suspense, red herrings and cliffhangers are used extensively. "Homer's Odyssey is one of the oldest stories in the Western world and is regarded as an early prototype of the thriller." A thriller is villain driven plot, whereby he presents obstacles the hero must overcome. The genre is a fascinatingly flexible form that can undermine audience complacency through a dramatic rendering of psychological, social, familial and political tensions and encourages sheltered but sensation-hungry audiences, in Hitchcock's phrase, "to put their toe in the cold water of fear to see what it's like.”

Characteristics
Thrillers often take place wholly or partly in exotic settings such as foreign cities, deserts, polar regions, or high seas. The heroes in most thrillers are frequently "hard men" accustomed to danger: law enforcement officers, spies, soldiers, seamen or aviators. However, they may also be ordinary citizens drawn into danger by accident. While such heroes have traditionally been men, women lead characters have become increasingly common; for an early example see Sigourney Weaver's character Ripley, in the movie Alien, 1979.
Thrillers often overlap with mystery stories, but are distinguished by the structure of their plots. In a thriller, the hero must thwart the plans of an enemy, rather than uncover a crime that has already happened; while a murder mystery would be spoiled by a premature disclosure of the murderer's identity, in a thriller the identity of a murderer or other villain is typically known all along. Thrillers also occur on a much grander scale: the crimes that must be prevented are serial or mass murder, terrorism, assassination, or the overthrow of governments. Jeopardy and violent confrontations are standard plot elements. While a mystery climaxes when the mystery is solved, a thriller climaxes when the hero finally defeats the villain, saving his own life and often the lives of others. In thrillers influenced by film noir and tragedy, the compromised hero is often killed in the process.
In recent years, when thrillers have been increasingly influenced by horror or psychological-horror exposure in pop culture, an ominous or monstrous element has become common to heighten tension. The monster could be anything, even an inferior physical force made superior only by their intellect, a supernatural entity, aliens, serial killers, or even microbes or chemical agents. Some authors have made their mark by incorporating all of these elements (Richard Laymon, F. Paul Wilson) throughout their bodies of work.
Similar distinctions separate the thriller from other overlapping genres: adventure, spy, legal, war, maritime fiction, and so on. Thrillers are defined not by their subject matter but by their approach to it. Many thrillers involve spies and espionage, but not all spy stories are thrillers. The spy novels of John le Carré, for example, explicitly and intentionally reject the conventions of the thriller. Conversely, many thrillers cross over to genres that traditionally have had few or no thriller elements. Alistair MacLean, Hammond Innes, and Brian Callison are best known for their thrillers, but are also accomplished writers of man-against-nature sea stories.
Thrillers may be defined by the primary mood that they elicit: fearful excitement. In short, if it "thrills", it is a thriller. As the introduction to a major anthology explains;
“Thrillers provide such a rich literary feast. There are all kinds. The legal thriller, spy thriller, action-adventure thriller, medical thriller, police thriller, romantic thriller, historical thriller, political thriller, religious thriller, high-tech thriller, military thriller. The list goes on and on, with new variations constantly being invented. In fact, this openness to expansion is one of the genre's most enduring characteristics. But what gives the variety of thrillers a common ground is the intensity of emotions they create, particularly those of apprehension and exhilaration, of excitement and breathlessness, all designed to generate that all-important thrill. By definition, if a thriller doesn't thrill, it's not doing its job.” James Patterson, June 2006.

Sub- Genres
The thriller genre can include the following sub-genres, which may include elements of other genres:

• Action thriller: In which the work often features a race against the clock, contains lots of violence, and an obvious antagonist. These films usually contain large amounts of guns, explosions, and large elaborate set pieces for the action to take place. These films often have elements of mystery films and crime films but these elements take a backseat to action. Notable examples are the James Bond films, The Transporter, and the Jason Bourne novels and films.
• Conspiracy thriller: In which the hero/heroine confronts a large, powerful group of enemies whose true extent only he/she recognizes. The Chancellor Manuscript and The Aquitane Progression by Robert Ludlum fall into this category, as do films such as Three Days of the Condor, Capricorn One, and JFK.
• Crime thriller: This particular genre is a hybrid type of both crime films and thrillers that offers a suspenseful account of a successful or failed crime or crimes. These films often focus on the criminal(s) rather than a policeman. Crime thrillers usually emphasize action over psychological aspects. Central topics of these films include murders, robberies, chases, shootouts, and double-crosses are central ingredients. Some examples include The Killing, Seven, Reservoir Dogs, Inside Man, and The Asphalt Jungle.
• Disaster thriller: In which the main conflict is due to some sort of natural or artificial disaster, such as floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanoes, etc., or nuclear disasters as an artificial disaster. Examples include Stormy Weather by Carl Hiaasen, Tremor by Winston Graham, and the 1974 film Earthquake.
• Drama thriller: In which the story consists of the elements of a thriller and drama film. These films are usually slower paced and involves a great deal of character development along with plot twists. Examples include The Illusionist, The Interpreter and The Prestige.
• Erotic thriller: In which it consists of erotica and thriller. It has become popular since the 1980s and the rise of VCR market penetration. The genre includes such films as Basic Instinct, Dressed to Kill, Color of Night, Eyes Wide Shut, Fatal Attraction, Looking for Mr. Goodbar, Obsessed, and In the Cut.
• Legal thriller: In which the lawyer-heroes/heroines confront enemies outside, as well as inside, the courtroom and are in danger of losing not only their cases but their lives. The Innocent Man by John Grisham is a well known example of the type.
• Medical thriller: In which the hero/heroine are medical doctors/personnel working to solve an expanding medical problem. Robin Cook, Tess Gerritsen, Michael Crichton, and Gary Braver are well-known authors of this subgenre. Nonfiction medical thrillers are also a subcategory, comprising works like The Hot Zone by Richard Preston. Films such as Awake are other examples of medical thrillers.
• Political thriller: In which the hero/heroine must ensure the stability of the government that employs him. The success of Seven Days in May (1962) by Fletcher Knebel, The Day of the Jackal (1971) by Frederick Forsyth, and The Manchurian Candidate (1959) by Richard Condon established this subgenre. A more recent example is the 1980 film Agency.
• Psychological thriller: In which (until the often violent resolution) the conflict between the main characters is mental and emotional, rather than physical. The Alfred Hitchcock films Suspicion, Shadow of a Doubt, and Strangers on a Train and David Lynch's bizarre and influential Blue Velvet are notable examples of the type, as is The Talented Mr. Ripley by Patricia Highsmith (who also wrote Strangers) and The Good Son starring Elijah Wood and Macaulay Culkin.
• Spy thriller (also a subgenre of spy fiction): In which the hero is generally a government agent who must take violent action against agents of a rival government or (in recent years) terrorists. Examples include From Russia, with Love by Ian Fleming, The Bourne Identity by Robert Ludlum, and television series such as Mission: Impossible and 24 (the latter demonstrating a break from the norm by Robert Ludlum, as it is as much a psychological thriller as a spy thriller).
• Techno-thriller: In which (typically military) technology is described in detail and made essential to the reader's/viewer's understanding of the plot. Tom Clancy defined and popularized the genre with his The Hunt for Red October, and is considered to be the "Father of the Techno thriller".
• Religious thriller: In which the plot is closely connected to religious objects, institutions and questions. While suspense stories have always shown a significant affinity for religion and philosophical issues (G.K. Chesterton's novel The Man Who Was Thursday has been called a "metaphysical thriller"; and Umberto Eco's novels The Name of the Rose and Foucault's Pendulum both display thriller characteristics), Dan Brown's 2003 best-seller The Da Vinci Code has led to a current boom in religiously oriented thrillers.
  Most thrillers are formed in some combination of the above, with horror, conspiracy, and psychological tricks used most commonly to heighten tension. Combinations are highly diverse, including:
  • Science fiction thrillers: Jurassic Park, Sunshine.
  • Techno/political/conspiracy/military: Robocop, S.M. Stirling's Draka novels.
  • Legal/forensic/psychological/: Thomas Harris' The Silence of the Lambs novel, Seven.

*disclaimer- the above information is taken from Wikipedia.com and is therefore not my own words*

Thriller Brief

Main Task- the titles and opening of a new thriller film, to last from a minimum of two to a maximum of four minutes. All video and audio material must be original, produced by the candidate(s), with the exception of music or audio effects from a copy-right free source.

Preliminary Continuity Exercise

Here is our preliminary continuity exercise, created using Imovie software. The content of the piece corresponds with the brief given, which required an exchange of dialogue. We have used a variety of camera shots to get the desired angles and have edited the sequence to add drama.

As our first attempt at a continuity piece, I am very pleased with the outcome of what we have produced.

Camera Shots, Angles and Movement

The camera is considered the eye of the film director, but unlike the true eye, the camera can be applied for many functions.

Camera Shots
A camera shot is the space seen within one shot or frame of filming. These shots can be applied to demonstrate setting, characters and themes of the plot. The creation of a film relies heavily on how the camera shots are applied, which means three aspects of shots should be taken into account;

• The Framing or the Length of the shot in question


• The Angle of the shot


• If there is to be any Movement

Framing is created through a combination of camera shots and angles, and is often used for emphasis on a particular characters' point of view. An element of suspense can be created by using this method to disclose information from the viewer, which later plays impotence to the intended plot.

Depth of Field
The distance through which elements in an image are in sharp focus. A shallow depth of field is often used as a technique to focus audience attention on the most significant element of a scene. Depth of field (DOF) is directly connected to, but should not be confused with, focus. focus is the quality or 'sharpness' of an object as it is registered in the image, and DOF refers to the extent to which the space represented is in focus. Close-up shooting and shooting in low-light conditions often results in images with very shallow depth of field. An image with shallow DOF has some elements in focus, but others are not.

Shallow Focus
A cinematographic technique incorporating a restricted depth of field. One plane is kept in sharp focus whilst the rest is out of focus. Shallow focus is typically used to emphasize and direct the viewers eye to a certain element of a scene, and is commonly used in conjunction with a close- up shot. Shallow focus can suggest psychological introspection, since a character appears oblivious to the world around him/her. It is therefore frequently applied in genres such as the melodrama, where the actions and thoughts of an individual prevail over everything else.

Deep Focus
Deep focus is a cinematographic technique using a large depth of field, requiring the different depths be in focus. All of the different planes of the image are given equal importance through deep focus, not only to the characters but also the spaces.

Shot Lengths

• Extreme Long Shot

Extreme is a comparative term, with the true distance being dependent upon subject matter. This type of shot is generally used as a scene- setting or 'establishing' shot. In generalised terms, it shows an exterior i.e. office blocks or landscape, it has been know to be used in disaster filming, showing destruction and providing the audience with an element of thrill.

• Long & Wide Shots

These shots show the whole person or the feature object as part of the landscape. The establishing shot in film production is usually a shot showing the audience the actor/s in their environment. This ascertains the context of the shots to follow, and gives a useful overall perspective. A long or wide shot can also be used as the first or 'master' shot for the next scene.

• Mid or Medium Shot

This type of shot generally shows a character from the knees/ waist up. This allows the viewer to clearly see the characters' expressions and movement without dominating the screen. This type of shot usually cuts out much of the background, allowing concentration to be on body language & dialogue, as reaction shots can draw the audience in.

• Close-up Shot

A close- up shot shows very little background, and focuses mainly on either a face or a specific detail of Mise-en-scene- everything in the background becomes blurred. This type of shot magnifies the object and directs the audience to the significance of the action/ reaction of that time.

• Extreme Close-up Shot

As its name suggests, the effect of an extreme close up magnifies beyond what a human eye would experience. These shots are used for dramatic emphasis- by framing only an eye or mouth, the director can add drama, suspense or tension to the moment in the narrative.

Camera Angles

• The 'Bird's-Eye' view
  

This type of view shows a scene from directly overhead; and is considered an unnatural angle. to the human eye. Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognisable at first (umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs). This shot does, however, put the audience in a godlike position, looking down on the action. People can be made to look insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider scheme of things.

• High Angle

The camera is elevated above the character/ object, but not as extreme as a
birds- eye shot. It can be used to achieve a wider shot of a scene. High angle cameras can be used to achieve a 'point- of- view' (POV) shot, where the character is looking down on a subject, creating an impression of weakness, or fright.

• Eye- Level

Considered a fairly simple shot; the camera is positioned as the person/ subject would observe a scene, with the subject's head on level with the frame of the camera focus.

• Low Angle

This placement of the camer increases height and can give a sense of speeded motion. Low angles help give an impression of superiority/ authority or menece within the action of a scene. The background of a low angle shot will tend to be just sky or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting adding to the disorientation of the viewer. Low angles are often used to convey a POV shot from a child's perspective.

• Canted

This shot obviously deviates from the 'normal' horizontal/ vertical axis position of the camera. The tilt of the camera suggests imbalance in comparison to other objects within the frame. Often used in horror films, canted shots give the impression of chaos, instability and mental imbalance in a character.

Camera Movement
A director may choose to move the pace of action along by telling the narrative via a series of cuts, changing from one shot to another, or the camera may be moved with the action. The camera movement can draw the viewers attention to or away from something, or switch from one subject to another that appears in the same frame. E.g a tracking shot where the camera physically moves closer or further away from the subject is most commonly used to increase the drama of what is being said or done.

• Zooming- zoom lenses are a mechanical assembly designed with elements to vary its focal length, with he ability to magnify within the frame, as opposed to a fixed focal length. The magnification process can be reversed by zooming out, creating an opening for a long/ wide shot.

• Panning- panning involves a movement of scanning a scene/landscape from left to right (or vice versa). The tripod provides a stable axis point, allowing the sweeping motion to be free. This movement is often used to follow a character, as the camera can move, keeping the subject within the main focus of the frame, without minimising setting.

• Tilting-where the tripod remains stationary and the camera tilts up or down. Similar to panning but with alteration in direction, this movement can be applied to create a sense of unease in the character, creating suspense or mystery.

• Crane Shots- the crane (or jib) is a piece of equipment, size dependent on purpose. The camera is suspended and raised up according to the scene content- this effect allows horizontal and vertical movement, the location to be seen from a high angle, which can then be swept down out of the action.

• Tracking/Dollying- both the camera and tripod are mounted on a moving vehicle or platform (complicated shots involve rails), allowing smooth movements following the action, generally following a character or object. This type of shot is often a good way of the journey of a character, or for moving from a long shot to a close-up, gradually focusing the audience on a particular object or character.

• Handheld/ Steadicam-these cameras produce a jerky, ragged effect, in strong contrast to that of the tracking/ dolly shots. The Steadicam (a heavy contraption which is attached a camera to an operator by a harness. The camera is stabilized so it moves independently) brings smoothness to hand held camera movement. In modern filming, no "walk and talk" sequence would be complete without the use. Hand held cameras signify a kind of gritty realism, and they can draw the audience in, with the impression they are in the scene themselves, rather than viewing it in a still, set position.

The Masters

Claude Levi- Strauss
Lévi-Strauss sought to apply the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure to anthropology. At the time, the family was traditionally considered the fundamental object of analysis, but was seen primarily as a self-contained unit consisting of a husband, a wife, and their children. Nephews, cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents all were treated as secondary. Lévi-Strauss argued that, however, akin to Saussure’s notion of linguistic value, families acquire determinate identities only through relations with one another. Thus he inverted the classical view of anthropology, putting the secondary family members first and insisting on analyzing the relations between units instead of the units themselves.
In his own analysis of the formation of the identities that arise through marriages between tribes, Lévi-Strauss noted that the relation between the uncle and the nephew was to the relation between brother and sister, as the relation between father and son is to that between husband and wife, that is, A is to B as C is to D. Therefore if we know A, B, and C, we can predict D, just as if we know A and D, we can predict B and C. The goal of Lévi-Strauss’s structural anthropology, then, was to simplify the masses of empirical data into generalized, comprehensible relations between units, which allow for predictive laws to be identified, such as A is to B as C is to D.
Similarly, Lévi-Strauss identified myths as a type of speech through which a language could be discovered. This theory attempted to explain how seemingly fantastical and arbitrary tales, could be so similar across cultures. Because he believed there was not one “authentic” version of a myth, rather that they were all manifestations of the same language, he sought to find the fundamental units of myth, namely, the mytheme. Lévi-Strauss broke each of the versions of a myth down into a series of sentences, consisting of a relation between a function and a subject. Sentences with the same function were given the same number and bundled together. These are mythemes.
What Lévi-Strauss believed he had discovered when he examined the relations between mythemes was that a myth consists of nothing but binary oppositions. Oedipus, for example, consists of the overrating of blood relations and the underrating of blood relations, the autochthonous origin of humans and the denial of their autochthonous origin. Influenced by Hegel, Lévi-Strauss believed that the human mind thinks fundamentally in these binary oppositions and their unification (the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad), and that these are what make meaning possible. Furthermore, he considered the job of myth to be a sleight of hand, an association of an irreconcilable binary opposition with a reconcilable binary opposition, creating the illusion, or belief, that the former had been resolved.

Vladimir Propp

Narrative Structure
Vladimir Propp extended the Russian Formalist approach to the study of narrative structure. In the Formalist approach, sentence structures were broken down into analyzable elements, or morphemes, and Propp used this method by analogy to analyze Russian fairy tales. By breaking down a large number of Russian folk tales into their smallest narrative units, or narratemes, Propp was able to arrive at a typology of narrative structures.

Functions
After the initial situation is depicted, the tale takes the following sequence of 31 functions:
1. ABSENTATION: A member of a family leaves the security of the home environment for some reason. This may be the hero or perhaps it’s some other member of the family that the hero will later need to rescue. This division of the cohesive family injects initial tension into the storyline. The hero may also be introduced here, often being shown as an ordinary person. This allows the reader of the story to associate with the hero as being 'like me'.
2. INTERDICTION: An interdiction is addressed to the hero ('don't go there', 'don't do this')The hero is warned against some action (given an 'interdiction'). A warning to the hero is also a warning to the reader about the dangers of life. Will the hero heed the warning? Would the reader? Perhaps the reader hopes the hero will ignore the warning, giving a vicarious adventure without the danger.
3. VIOLATION of INTERDICTION. The interdiction is violated (villain enters the tale). The hero ignores the interdiction (warning not to do something) and goes ahead. This generally proves to be a bad move and the villain enters the story, although not necessarily confronting the hero. Perhaps they are just a lurking presence or perhaps they attack the family whilst the hero is away. This acts to further increase tension. We may want to shout at the hero 'don't do it!' But the hero cannot hear us and does it anyway.
4. RECONNAISSANCE: The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim questions the villain). The villain (often in disguise) makes an active attempt at seeking information, for example searching for something valuable or trying to actively capture someone. They may speak with a member of the family who innocently divulges information. They may also seek to meet the hero, perhaps knowing already the hero is special in some way. The introduction of the villain adds early tension to the story, particularly when they are found close to the previously-supposedly safe family or community environment. The eloquence or power of the villain may also add tension and we may want to shout at their targets to take care.
5. DELIVERY: The villain gains information about the victim. The villain's seeking now pays off and he or she now acquires some form of information, often about the hero or victim. Other information can be gained, for example about a map or treasure location or the intent of the 'good guys'. This is a down point in the story as the pendulum of luck swings towards the villain, creating fear and anticipation that the villain will overcome the hero and the story will end in tragedy.
6. TRICKERY: The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim). The villain now presses further, often using the information gained in seeking to deceive the hero or victim in some way, perhaps appearing in disguise. This may include capture of the victim, getting the hero to give the villain something or persuading them that the villain is actually a friend and thereby gaining collaboration. Deception and the betrayal of trust is one of the worst social crimes, short of physical abuse. This action cements the position of the villain as clearly bad. It also raises the tension further as we fear for the hero or victim who is being deceived.
7. COMPLICITY: Victim taken in by deception, unwittingly helping the enemy. The trickery of the villain now works and the hero or victim naively acts in a way that helps the villain in some way. This may range from providing the villain with something (perhaps a map or magical weapon) to actively working against good people (perhaps the villain has persuaded the hero that these other people are actually bad). We now despair as the hero or victim acts in a way that may be seen as villainous. Perhaps we worry that the hero will fall permanently into the thrall of the villain. Perhaps they will become corrupted and evil also. We also fear for the reputation of the hero who may be perceived as evil and thus never find the true treasure or win the hand of the princess.
8. VILLAINY and LACK: Villain causes harm/injury to family member (by abduction, theft of magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels someone, casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, comits murder, imprisons/detains someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc). There are two parts to this stage, either or both of which may appear in the story. In the first stage, the villain causes some kind of harm, for example carrying away a victim or the desired magical object (which must be then be retrieved). In the second stage, a sense of lack is identified, for example in the hero's family or within a community, whereby something is identified as lost or something becomes desirable for some reason, for example a magical object that will save people in some way. 'Lack' is a deep psychoanalytic principle which we first experience when we realize our individual separation from the world. Lack leads to desire and deep longing and we look to heroes to satisfy this aching emptiness.
9. MEDIATION: Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/ alternative is that victimized hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment). The hero now discovers the act of villainy or lack, perhaps finding their family or community devastated or caught up in a state of anguish and woe. This creates a defining moment in the story as we wonder what will happen now. Perhaps we do not realize that the hero is the hero, as they may not yet have demonstrated heroic qualities. We feel the lack in sympathy for the act of villainy, but the hero may just have arrived on the scene or may be undistinguished from other grieving family members.
10. BEGINNING COUNTER-ACTION: Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action. The hero now decides to act in a way that will resolve the lack, for example finding a needed magical item, rescuing those who are captured or otherwise defeating the villain. This is a defining moment for the hero as this is the decision that sets the course of future actions and by which a previously ordinary person takes on the mantle of heroism. Having made this decision, acting with integrity means that there is no turning back, for to do so would be to remove the mantle of heroism and be left only with shame.
11. DEPARTURE: Hero leaves home;
12. FIRST FUNCTION OF THE DONOR: Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);
13. HERO'S REACTION: Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against him);
14. RECEIPT OF A MAGICAL AGENT: Hero acquires use of a magical agent (directly transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, eaten/drunk, help offered by other characters);
15. GUIDANCE: Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;
16. STRUGGLE: Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. BRANDING: Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);
18. VICTORY: Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep, banished);
19. LIQUIDATION: Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed);
20. RETURN: Hero returns;
21. PURSUIT: Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);
22. RESCUE: Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden, hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);
23. UNRECOGNIZED ARRIVAL: Hero unrecognized, arrives home or in another country;
24. UNFOUNDED CLAIMS: False hero presents unfounded claims;
25. DIFFICULT TASK: Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. SOLUTION: Task is resolved;
27. RECOGNITION: Hero is recognized (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);
28. EXPOSURE: False hero or villain is exposed;
29. TRANSFIGURATION: Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new garments etc);
30. PUNISHMENT: Villain is punished;
31. WEDDING: Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).
Occasionally, some of these functions are inverted, as when the hero receives something while still at home, the function of a donor occurring early. More often, a function is negated twice, so that it must be repeated three times.

Characters
He also concluded that all the characters could be resolved into only 7 broad character types in the 100 tales he analyzed:
1. The villain — struggles against the hero.
2. The donor — prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object.
3. The (magical) helper — helps the hero in the quest.
4. The princess and her father — gives the task to the hero, identifies the false hero, marries the hero, often sought for during the narrative. Propp noted that functionally, the princess and the father can not be clearly distinguished.
5. The dispatcher — character who makes the lack known and sends the hero off.
6. The hero or victim/seeker hero — reacts to the donor, weds the princess.
7. [False hero] — takes credit for the hero’s actions or tries to marry the princess.

Tzvetan Todorov
Todorov's greatest contribution to literary theory was his defining of the fantastic, the fantastic uncanny, and the fantastic marvelous. Todorov defines the fantastic as being any event that happens in our world that seems to be supernatural. Upon the occurrence of the event, we must decide if the event was an illusion or whether it is real and has actually taken place. Todorov uses Alvaro from Cazotte's Le Diable Amoureux as an example of a fantastic event. Alvaro must decide whether the woman he is in love with is truly a woman or if she is the devil.

Upon choosing whether the event was real or imaginary, Todorov says that we enter into the genres of uncanny and marvelous. In the fantastic uncanny, the event that occurs is actually an illusion of some sort. The "laws of reality" remain intact and also provide a rational explanation for the fantastic event. Todorov gives examples of dreams, drugs, illusions of the senses, madness, etc. as things that could explain a fantastic/supernatural event. In the fantastic marvelous, the supernatural event that occurs has actually taken place and therefore the "laws of reality" have to be changed to explain the event. Only if the implied reader cannot opt for one or the other possibility, the text is purely fantastic.

*disclaimer- content is taken from wikipedia.com, and are not my words*