Camera Shots, Angles and Movement

The camera is considered the eye of the film director, but unlike the true eye, the camera can be applied for many functions.

Camera Shots
A camera shot is the space seen within one shot or frame of filming. These shots can be applied to demonstrate setting, characters and themes of the plot. The creation of a film relies heavily on how the camera shots are applied, which means three aspects of shots should be taken into account;

• The Framing or the Length of the shot in question


• The Angle of the shot


• If there is to be any Movement

Framing is created through a combination of camera shots and angles, and is often used for emphasis on a particular characters' point of view. An element of suspense can be created by using this method to disclose information from the viewer, which later plays impotence to the intended plot.

Depth of Field
The distance through which elements in an image are in sharp focus. A shallow depth of field is often used as a technique to focus audience attention on the most significant element of a scene. Depth of field (DOF) is directly connected to, but should not be confused with, focus. focus is the quality or 'sharpness' of an object as it is registered in the image, and DOF refers to the extent to which the space represented is in focus. Close-up shooting and shooting in low-light conditions often results in images with very shallow depth of field. An image with shallow DOF has some elements in focus, but others are not.

Shallow Focus
A cinematographic technique incorporating a restricted depth of field. One plane is kept in sharp focus whilst the rest is out of focus. Shallow focus is typically used to emphasize and direct the viewers eye to a certain element of a scene, and is commonly used in conjunction with a close- up shot. Shallow focus can suggest psychological introspection, since a character appears oblivious to the world around him/her. It is therefore frequently applied in genres such as the melodrama, where the actions and thoughts of an individual prevail over everything else.

Deep Focus
Deep focus is a cinematographic technique using a large depth of field, requiring the different depths be in focus. All of the different planes of the image are given equal importance through deep focus, not only to the characters but also the spaces.

Shot Lengths

• Extreme Long Shot

Extreme is a comparative term, with the true distance being dependent upon subject matter. This type of shot is generally used as a scene- setting or 'establishing' shot. In generalised terms, it shows an exterior i.e. office blocks or landscape, it has been know to be used in disaster filming, showing destruction and providing the audience with an element of thrill.

• Long & Wide Shots

These shots show the whole person or the feature object as part of the landscape. The establishing shot in film production is usually a shot showing the audience the actor/s in their environment. This ascertains the context of the shots to follow, and gives a useful overall perspective. A long or wide shot can also be used as the first or 'master' shot for the next scene.

• Mid or Medium Shot

This type of shot generally shows a character from the knees/ waist up. This allows the viewer to clearly see the characters' expressions and movement without dominating the screen. This type of shot usually cuts out much of the background, allowing concentration to be on body language & dialogue, as reaction shots can draw the audience in.

• Close-up Shot

A close- up shot shows very little background, and focuses mainly on either a face or a specific detail of Mise-en-scene- everything in the background becomes blurred. This type of shot magnifies the object and directs the audience to the significance of the action/ reaction of that time.

• Extreme Close-up Shot

As its name suggests, the effect of an extreme close up magnifies beyond what a human eye would experience. These shots are used for dramatic emphasis- by framing only an eye or mouth, the director can add drama, suspense or tension to the moment in the narrative.

Camera Angles

• The 'Bird's-Eye' view
  

This type of view shows a scene from directly overhead; and is considered an unnatural angle. to the human eye. Familiar objects viewed from this angle might seem totally unrecognisable at first (umbrellas in a crowd, dancers' legs). This shot does, however, put the audience in a godlike position, looking down on the action. People can be made to look insignificant, ant-like, part of a wider scheme of things.

• High Angle

The camera is elevated above the character/ object, but not as extreme as a
birds- eye shot. It can be used to achieve a wider shot of a scene. High angle cameras can be used to achieve a 'point- of- view' (POV) shot, where the character is looking down on a subject, creating an impression of weakness, or fright.

• Eye- Level

Considered a fairly simple shot; the camera is positioned as the person/ subject would observe a scene, with the subject's head on level with the frame of the camera focus.

• Low Angle

This placement of the camer increases height and can give a sense of speeded motion. Low angles help give an impression of superiority/ authority or menece within the action of a scene. The background of a low angle shot will tend to be just sky or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting adding to the disorientation of the viewer. Low angles are often used to convey a POV shot from a child's perspective.

• Canted

This shot obviously deviates from the 'normal' horizontal/ vertical axis position of the camera. The tilt of the camera suggests imbalance in comparison to other objects within the frame. Often used in horror films, canted shots give the impression of chaos, instability and mental imbalance in a character.

Camera Movement
A director may choose to move the pace of action along by telling the narrative via a series of cuts, changing from one shot to another, or the camera may be moved with the action. The camera movement can draw the viewers attention to or away from something, or switch from one subject to another that appears in the same frame. E.g a tracking shot where the camera physically moves closer or further away from the subject is most commonly used to increase the drama of what is being said or done.

• Zooming- zoom lenses are a mechanical assembly designed with elements to vary its focal length, with he ability to magnify within the frame, as opposed to a fixed focal length. The magnification process can be reversed by zooming out, creating an opening for a long/ wide shot.

• Panning- panning involves a movement of scanning a scene/landscape from left to right (or vice versa). The tripod provides a stable axis point, allowing the sweeping motion to be free. This movement is often used to follow a character, as the camera can move, keeping the subject within the main focus of the frame, without minimising setting.

• Tilting-where the tripod remains stationary and the camera tilts up or down. Similar to panning but with alteration in direction, this movement can be applied to create a sense of unease in the character, creating suspense or mystery.

• Crane Shots- the crane (or jib) is a piece of equipment, size dependent on purpose. The camera is suspended and raised up according to the scene content- this effect allows horizontal and vertical movement, the location to be seen from a high angle, which can then be swept down out of the action.

• Tracking/Dollying- both the camera and tripod are mounted on a moving vehicle or platform (complicated shots involve rails), allowing smooth movements following the action, generally following a character or object. This type of shot is often a good way of the journey of a character, or for moving from a long shot to a close-up, gradually focusing the audience on a particular object or character.

• Handheld/ Steadicam-these cameras produce a jerky, ragged effect, in strong contrast to that of the tracking/ dolly shots. The Steadicam (a heavy contraption which is attached a camera to an operator by a harness. The camera is stabilized so it moves independently) brings smoothness to hand held camera movement. In modern filming, no "walk and talk" sequence would be complete without the use. Hand held cameras signify a kind of gritty realism, and they can draw the audience in, with the impression they are in the scene themselves, rather than viewing it in a still, set position.

The Masters

Claude Levi- Strauss
Lévi-Strauss sought to apply the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure to anthropology. At the time, the family was traditionally considered the fundamental object of analysis, but was seen primarily as a self-contained unit consisting of a husband, a wife, and their children. Nephews, cousins, aunts, uncles, and grandparents all were treated as secondary. Lévi-Strauss argued that, however, akin to Saussure’s notion of linguistic value, families acquire determinate identities only through relations with one another. Thus he inverted the classical view of anthropology, putting the secondary family members first and insisting on analyzing the relations between units instead of the units themselves.
In his own analysis of the formation of the identities that arise through marriages between tribes, Lévi-Strauss noted that the relation between the uncle and the nephew was to the relation between brother and sister, as the relation between father and son is to that between husband and wife, that is, A is to B as C is to D. Therefore if we know A, B, and C, we can predict D, just as if we know A and D, we can predict B and C. The goal of Lévi-Strauss’s structural anthropology, then, was to simplify the masses of empirical data into generalized, comprehensible relations between units, which allow for predictive laws to be identified, such as A is to B as C is to D.
Similarly, Lévi-Strauss identified myths as a type of speech through which a language could be discovered. This theory attempted to explain how seemingly fantastical and arbitrary tales, could be so similar across cultures. Because he believed there was not one “authentic” version of a myth, rather that they were all manifestations of the same language, he sought to find the fundamental units of myth, namely, the mytheme. Lévi-Strauss broke each of the versions of a myth down into a series of sentences, consisting of a relation between a function and a subject. Sentences with the same function were given the same number and bundled together. These are mythemes.
What Lévi-Strauss believed he had discovered when he examined the relations between mythemes was that a myth consists of nothing but binary oppositions. Oedipus, for example, consists of the overrating of blood relations and the underrating of blood relations, the autochthonous origin of humans and the denial of their autochthonous origin. Influenced by Hegel, Lévi-Strauss believed that the human mind thinks fundamentally in these binary oppositions and their unification (the thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad), and that these are what make meaning possible. Furthermore, he considered the job of myth to be a sleight of hand, an association of an irreconcilable binary opposition with a reconcilable binary opposition, creating the illusion, or belief, that the former had been resolved.

Vladimir Propp

Narrative Structure
Vladimir Propp extended the Russian Formalist approach to the study of narrative structure. In the Formalist approach, sentence structures were broken down into analyzable elements, or morphemes, and Propp used this method by analogy to analyze Russian fairy tales. By breaking down a large number of Russian folk tales into their smallest narrative units, or narratemes, Propp was able to arrive at a typology of narrative structures.

Functions
After the initial situation is depicted, the tale takes the following sequence of 31 functions:
1. ABSENTATION: A member of a family leaves the security of the home environment for some reason. This may be the hero or perhaps it’s some other member of the family that the hero will later need to rescue. This division of the cohesive family injects initial tension into the storyline. The hero may also be introduced here, often being shown as an ordinary person. This allows the reader of the story to associate with the hero as being 'like me'.
2. INTERDICTION: An interdiction is addressed to the hero ('don't go there', 'don't do this')The hero is warned against some action (given an 'interdiction'). A warning to the hero is also a warning to the reader about the dangers of life. Will the hero heed the warning? Would the reader? Perhaps the reader hopes the hero will ignore the warning, giving a vicarious adventure without the danger.
3. VIOLATION of INTERDICTION. The interdiction is violated (villain enters the tale). The hero ignores the interdiction (warning not to do something) and goes ahead. This generally proves to be a bad move and the villain enters the story, although not necessarily confronting the hero. Perhaps they are just a lurking presence or perhaps they attack the family whilst the hero is away. This acts to further increase tension. We may want to shout at the hero 'don't do it!' But the hero cannot hear us and does it anyway.
4. RECONNAISSANCE: The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance (either villain tries to find the children/jewels etc; or intended victim questions the villain). The villain (often in disguise) makes an active attempt at seeking information, for example searching for something valuable or trying to actively capture someone. They may speak with a member of the family who innocently divulges information. They may also seek to meet the hero, perhaps knowing already the hero is special in some way. The introduction of the villain adds early tension to the story, particularly when they are found close to the previously-supposedly safe family or community environment. The eloquence or power of the villain may also add tension and we may want to shout at their targets to take care.
5. DELIVERY: The villain gains information about the victim. The villain's seeking now pays off and he or she now acquires some form of information, often about the hero or victim. Other information can be gained, for example about a map or treasure location or the intent of the 'good guys'. This is a down point in the story as the pendulum of luck swings towards the villain, creating fear and anticipation that the villain will overcome the hero and the story will end in tragedy.
6. TRICKERY: The villain attempts to deceive the victim to take possession of victim or victim's belongings (trickery; villain disguised, tries to win confidence of victim). The villain now presses further, often using the information gained in seeking to deceive the hero or victim in some way, perhaps appearing in disguise. This may include capture of the victim, getting the hero to give the villain something or persuading them that the villain is actually a friend and thereby gaining collaboration. Deception and the betrayal of trust is one of the worst social crimes, short of physical abuse. This action cements the position of the villain as clearly bad. It also raises the tension further as we fear for the hero or victim who is being deceived.
7. COMPLICITY: Victim taken in by deception, unwittingly helping the enemy. The trickery of the villain now works and the hero or victim naively acts in a way that helps the villain in some way. This may range from providing the villain with something (perhaps a map or magical weapon) to actively working against good people (perhaps the villain has persuaded the hero that these other people are actually bad). We now despair as the hero or victim acts in a way that may be seen as villainous. Perhaps we worry that the hero will fall permanently into the thrall of the villain. Perhaps they will become corrupted and evil also. We also fear for the reputation of the hero who may be perceived as evil and thus never find the true treasure or win the hand of the princess.
8. VILLAINY and LACK: Villain causes harm/injury to family member (by abduction, theft of magical agent, spoiling crops, plunders in other forms, causes a disappearance, expels someone, casts spell on someone, substitutes child etc, comits murder, imprisons/detains someone, threatens forced marriage, provides nightly torments); Alternatively, a member of family lacks something or desires something (magical potion etc). There are two parts to this stage, either or both of which may appear in the story. In the first stage, the villain causes some kind of harm, for example carrying away a victim or the desired magical object (which must be then be retrieved). In the second stage, a sense of lack is identified, for example in the hero's family or within a community, whereby something is identified as lost or something becomes desirable for some reason, for example a magical object that will save people in some way. 'Lack' is a deep psychoanalytic principle which we first experience when we realize our individual separation from the world. Lack leads to desire and deep longing and we look to heroes to satisfy this aching emptiness.
9. MEDIATION: Misfortune or lack is made known, (hero is dispatched, hears call for help etc/ alternative is that victimized hero is sent away, freed from imprisonment). The hero now discovers the act of villainy or lack, perhaps finding their family or community devastated or caught up in a state of anguish and woe. This creates a defining moment in the story as we wonder what will happen now. Perhaps we do not realize that the hero is the hero, as they may not yet have demonstrated heroic qualities. We feel the lack in sympathy for the act of villainy, but the hero may just have arrived on the scene or may be undistinguished from other grieving family members.
10. BEGINNING COUNTER-ACTION: Seeker agrees to, or decides upon counter-action. The hero now decides to act in a way that will resolve the lack, for example finding a needed magical item, rescuing those who are captured or otherwise defeating the villain. This is a defining moment for the hero as this is the decision that sets the course of future actions and by which a previously ordinary person takes on the mantle of heroism. Having made this decision, acting with integrity means that there is no turning back, for to do so would be to remove the mantle of heroism and be left only with shame.
11. DEPARTURE: Hero leaves home;
12. FIRST FUNCTION OF THE DONOR: Hero is tested, interrogated, attacked etc, preparing the way for his/her receiving magical agent or helper (donor);
13. HERO'S REACTION: Hero reacts to actions of future donor (withstands/fails the test, frees captive, reconciles disputants, performs service, uses adversary's powers against him);
14. RECEIPT OF A MAGICAL AGENT: Hero acquires use of a magical agent (directly transferred, located, purchased, prepared, spontaneously appears, eaten/drunk, help offered by other characters);
15. GUIDANCE: Hero is transferred, delivered or led to whereabouts of an object of the search;
16. STRUGGLE: Hero and villain join in direct combat;
17. BRANDING: Hero is branded (wounded/marked, receives ring or scarf);
18. VICTORY: Villain is defeated (killed in combat, defeated in contest, killed while asleep, banished);
19. LIQUIDATION: Initial misfortune or lack is resolved (object of search distributed, spell broken, slain person revived, captive freed);
20. RETURN: Hero returns;
21. PURSUIT: Hero is pursued (pursuer tries to kill, eat, undermine the hero);
22. RESCUE: Hero is rescued from pursuit (obstacles delay pursuer, hero hides or is hidden, hero transforms unrecognisably, hero saved from attempt on his/her life);
23. UNRECOGNIZED ARRIVAL: Hero unrecognized, arrives home or in another country;
24. UNFOUNDED CLAIMS: False hero presents unfounded claims;
25. DIFFICULT TASK: Difficult task proposed to the hero (trial by ordeal, riddles, test of strength/endurance, other tasks);
26. SOLUTION: Task is resolved;
27. RECOGNITION: Hero is recognized (by mark, brand, or thing given to him/her);
28. EXPOSURE: False hero or villain is exposed;
29. TRANSFIGURATION: Hero is given a new appearance (is made whole, handsome, new garments etc);
30. PUNISHMENT: Villain is punished;
31. WEDDING: Hero marries and ascends the throne (is rewarded/promoted).
Occasionally, some of these functions are inverted, as when the hero receives something while still at home, the function of a donor occurring early. More often, a function is negated twice, so that it must be repeated three times.

Characters
He also concluded that all the characters could be resolved into only 7 broad character types in the 100 tales he analyzed:
1. The villain — struggles against the hero.
2. The donor — prepares the hero or gives the hero some magical object.
3. The (magical) helper — helps the hero in the quest.
4. The princess and her father — gives the task to the hero, identifies the false hero, marries the hero, often sought for during the narrative. Propp noted that functionally, the princess and the father can not be clearly distinguished.
5. The dispatcher — character who makes the lack known and sends the hero off.
6. The hero or victim/seeker hero — reacts to the donor, weds the princess.
7. [False hero] — takes credit for the hero’s actions or tries to marry the princess.

Tzvetan Todorov
Todorov's greatest contribution to literary theory was his defining of the fantastic, the fantastic uncanny, and the fantastic marvelous. Todorov defines the fantastic as being any event that happens in our world that seems to be supernatural. Upon the occurrence of the event, we must decide if the event was an illusion or whether it is real and has actually taken place. Todorov uses Alvaro from Cazotte's Le Diable Amoureux as an example of a fantastic event. Alvaro must decide whether the woman he is in love with is truly a woman or if she is the devil.

Upon choosing whether the event was real or imaginary, Todorov says that we enter into the genres of uncanny and marvelous. In the fantastic uncanny, the event that occurs is actually an illusion of some sort. The "laws of reality" remain intact and also provide a rational explanation for the fantastic event. Todorov gives examples of dreams, drugs, illusions of the senses, madness, etc. as things that could explain a fantastic/supernatural event. In the fantastic marvelous, the supernatural event that occurs has actually taken place and therefore the "laws of reality" have to be changed to explain the event. Only if the implied reader cannot opt for one or the other possibility, the text is purely fantastic.

*disclaimer- content is taken from wikipedia.com, and are not my words*